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4681 AIOU Solved Assignment 2 Spring 2019

AIOU Solved Assignments 2019

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Here is the solved assignments of 4681 the subject name is Introduction to Sociology. As from name it is clear that it is all about the basic of sociology in which there is background of sociology why we need it why it is necessary to study it and some basics of culture and society. it is an easy subject to take a start it is a M.Sc Sociology 1 Samester subject.if you have any problem in understanding or wants notes of this subject contact us on Facebook.Click here

AIOU

MSc Sociology
Introduction To Sociology: Culture And Society(4681)

Assignment No#2 (Unit 5-9)

Question #1

What is Socialization? Discuss in detail the different influence that involves in the process of socialization?

Socialization: -

In sociology, socialization is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained".

Human infants are born without any culture. They must be transformed by their parents, teachers, and others into cultural and socially adept animals. The general process of acquiring culture is referred to as socialization

Socialization is strongly connected to developmental psychology. Humans need social experiences to learn about their culture and to survive.

Socialization essentially represents the whole process of learning throughout the life course and is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children.

Socialization may lead to desirable outcomes—sometimes labeled "moral"—as regards the society where it occurs. Individual views are influenced by society's consensus and usually, tend toward what that society finds acceptable or "normal". Socialization provides only a partial explanation for human beliefs and behaviors, maintaining that agents are not blank slates predetermined by their environment; scientific research provides evidence that people are shaped by both social influences and genes.

The looking-glass self is a social psychological concept, created by Charles Horton Cooley in 1902, stating that a person’s self grows out of society’s interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others. The term refers to people shaping themselves based on other people’s perception, which leads people to reinforce other people’s perspectives on themselves. People shape themselves based on what other people perceive and confirm other people’s opinion on themselves.

George Herbert Mead developed a theory of social behaviorism to explain how social experience develops an individual’s personality. Mead’s central concept is the self: the part of an individual’s personality composed of self-awareness and self-image. Mead claimed that the self is not there at birth, rather, it is developed with social experience.

Process Of Socialization: -

Socialization is a learning process that begins shortly after birth. Early childhood is the period of the most intense and the most crucial socialization. It is then that we acquire language and learn the fundamentals of our culture. It is also when much of our personality takes shape. However, we continue to be socialized throughout our lives. As we age, we enter new statuses and need to learn the appropriate roles for them. We also have experiences that teach us lessons and potentially lead us to alter our expectations, beliefs, and personality. For instance, the experience of being raped is likely to cause a woman to be distrustful of others.

A number of factors influence the socialization are as following:-

1. Family:

The family plays a very important role in the socialization of the child. In the beginning, the parents are the family for the child, because he depends on them for various things. After the parent's mention may be made of sisters, brothers, uncle, aunt, grandparents, and servants etc.

The child learns many things from them relating to social behavior. The adult members of the family must see that their behaviors are within reasonable control in order that children may not learn anything undesirable through imitating them.

The parents owe a special responsibility in this respect, because the child’s socialization begins first on the basis of parental behavior. The child learns many of his habits from parents. If the child has become problematic the responsibility is definitely of the parents from whom he has copied certain modes of behavior.

That is why it is said that it is not the children who are problematic. In fact, it is the parents who are problematic. Through his behavior, the child represents the personality of his parents. Hence the parents must place good examples before children.

The parents must evince control, stability and appropriateness in their behavior. Parents must see that their behavior in relation to children is according to the situation in hand. Too much pampering will spoil them and they will drift away from realities of life. This situation will affect their socialization adversely.

2. Mutual relation between parents:

There is a close link between the development of the child and the parents’ mutual relationship which may be of four types:—(1) The mother loves the father, but the father does not love her, (2) The father loves the mother but the mother does not love the father, (3) None of them love each other, and (4) There is intense love between them.

All these four situations influence the socialization of the child. The first three situations are unfavorable for socialization because they impair the child’s adjustment. Then, there is no stability and control in the child’s behavior, because he does not find the same in parents. When the life of parents is happy, they are able to take due care of the child and his socialization goes on smoothly.

3. Entry into a new family:

Some children have to go from one family to another. This may happen when a child is adopted by some issueless parents. Some women come to new houses with children from previous husbands.

This situation, too, is not favorable for good socialization. When the child is of only 2 or 3 years of age, he does not remember anything. Then he does not face many difficulties in his adjustment. But if he becomes of 7 or 8 years he may confront a difficult situation.

In a new family, his socialization will depend upon how others in the family behave with him. Indifference or too much fondling both will obstruct his normal socialization.

4. The relation with other members of the family:

After the parents, the child comes into contact with other members of the family. If there are only 2 or 3 small children in the family, the socialization of the child will take a particular shape. If there are old grand-parents and uncles and aunts, the socialization of the child will be of a different type.

The child learns the virtues of co-operation, self-sacrifice, love, sympathy, religiosity, feeling for rendering service to others, competition, bravery, and other social traits through contacts with other grown-up members of the family, the socialization of the child proceeds on a very flow pace. Then the child may pick up some unsocial traits. These un-social elements may disappear gradually when the child starts going to school.

5. The impact of sisters and brothers:

Sisters arid” brothers influence immensely the socialization of the child. It is from the sisters and brothers that the child learns how to behave with youngsters and elders. If the child happens to be the only child in the family, his socialization takes a particular form.

Then the child may develop selfishness and obstinacy in him. Members of the family usually pay special attention to the only child. They try to meet all his demands. Each movement of the child, then, is regarded as something very unique.

As a result, the child becomes very proud of himself and conscious of himself as superior-most. This feeling in him promotes many un-social traits in him. Consequently, he may lack such good social traits as co-operation, self-sacrifice, sympathy, and feeling of; service for others.

Accordingly, it is not difficult to infer about many other traits of an only child. However, this does not mean that an only child is sure to be spoiled. Many only children have succeeded in placing great ideals of life before others. But in the beginning, it is very likely that they may develop some bad social traits.

Socialization is also affected by the chronological position of the child amongst sisters and brothers. The eldest, the middle and the youngest are closely related to a certain type of socialization. The eldest one becomes prone to rule over other children. He usually issues commands to younger sisters and brothers.

The middle child nurtures a feeling of rivalry both against the eldest and youngest. Because of this position, the socialization of the eldest, middle and youngest child proceeds in different ways. Similarly, the socialization of single brother amongst many sisters and of a single sister amidst many brothers goes on in varying ways which can never be regarded as desirable.

Such children usually become spoiled. So our behavior with each child should be very psychological. Only then their socialization will proceed in a desirable manner.

6. The social and economic status:

The social and economic status influences the process of socialization. All like to meet children belonging to good social and economic status. Such children generally get ample opportunities to meet with various types of people.

Hence their socialization goes on at a good speed. Quite contrary to this, people do not welcome meeting children of low or bad economic and social status. Such children do not enjoy occasions to meet with various types of people. So their socialization takes a different turn. Such children may also develop an inferiority complex.

7. Neighbors and companions:

Neighbors and companions play an important role in socialization. Before starting going to school, the child spends much of his time with neighbors and companions. Even after his admission to a school, he maintains his contact with his neighbors and companions.

If the neighbors and companions are good the child forms good habits, otherwise, he goes astray and picks up undesirable modes of behavior that is why liquor shops and other bad places are regarded as vicious and the children are advised not to frequent them.

Bad companions mold the child towards bad habits. Needless to add that we have to see that the child does not associate himself with bad neighbors and depraved companions

8. Social anxiety:

All children like to behave in such a manner as to elicit praise from others. From the age of 12 to 22 or 23 years (i.e. during adolescence), he is very much keen to have the approval of his conduct from others.

It is so because now he has developed greater social consciousness. Adolescents are very much afraid of others’ adverse criticism and punishments from his elders in the family. No corporal punishment should be given to adolescents.

In very trying situations, at worst, they may be scolded. If needful, some of the conveniences given to them may be withdrawn. The adolescent undergoes anxiety for showing desirable behavior.

The more one has this type of social anxiety, the more he tries to seek praise from others. Thus this type of social anxiety works as a good motivation for desirable socialization.

10. The caste or class level:

Socialization of the child is influenced by the caste or class he belongs to. The child from a majority group may consider himself superior to that from a minority community. Similarly, in Hindus a child from a so-called high caste regards himself as superior to that from a caste which in his opinion is lower.

The children from lower castes consider themselves inferior to those from higher strata of society. For example, in U.S.A. the Negro children regard themselves inferior to white ones.

In each country there are many children who consider themselves inferior or superior to others because of their caste or class level. This feeling may create an imbalance in their behavior, and accordingly, their socialization is also affected.

11. The school:

The school is of vital importance in the socialization of the child for the first four or five years, the child learns various things in his family. Thus he is already socialized up to some extent before he starts going to school.

In the school the child confronts a new society. He comes to know about many things. All of us feel very much surprised to note how a young child of 5 or 6 years of age has picked up so many things in the school within a few weeks.

In a way, his whole personality is revolutionized. In the school the child realizes that he is only one unity of the group and like him there are several other units. This feeling brings in many changes in his behavior.

Now in place of his ‘self he is diverted to other children of the school. The child begins to feel that other children, too, must be having several needs and aspirations like him. Now he has to learn new methods of adjustment in the environment the teacher plays a very important role through his behavior in an ideal manner.

Thus within the school environment the child adopts many social elements. As a result, his socialization proceeds further. Now the child appears to be more social than before. He appears to be more tolerant and balanced.

The socialization in the school will depend upon the nature of the school and the teachers’ and other children’s behaviors. So we all should try to send our children to good schools.

12. Culture:

Socialization of the child is deeply related with culture. That is why differences are perceptible in the personalities and forms of socialization in children nurtured in varying cultures.

The culture of a high family is likely to be higher than that of a lower-class family. Therefore, differences are found in the nature of socialization in children coming from higher and lower families.

Question # 2

Explain the system of stratification. Elaborate on how deviance is functional for any society?

System of Stratification: -

The division of people into levels according to power, wealth, and prestige.

Slavery:

The most closed system is slavery, or the ownership of people, which has been quite common in human history (Ennals, 2007). Slavery is thought to have begun 10,000 years ago, after agricultural societies developed, as people in these societies made prisoners of war work on their farms. Many of the ancient lands of the Middle East, including Babylonia, Egypt, and Persia, also owned slaves, as did ancient China and India. Slavery especially flourished in ancient Greece and Rome, which used thousands of slaves for their trade economies. Most slaves in ancient times were prisoners of war or debtors. As trade died down during the Middle Ages, so did slavery.

But once Europeans began exploring the Western Hemisphere in the 1500s, slavery regained its popularity. Portuguese and Spanish colonists who settled in Brazil and the Caribbean islands made slaves of thousands of Indians already living there. After most of them died from disease and abuse, the Portuguese and Spaniards began bringing slaves from Africa. In the next century, the English, the French, and other Europeans also began bringing African slaves into the Western Hemisphere, and by the 1800s they had captured and shipped to the New World some 10–12 million Africans, almost 2 million of whom died along the way (Thornton, 1998).

The United States, of course, is all too familiar with slavery, which remains perhaps the most deplorable experience in American history and continues to have repercussions for African Americans and the rest of American society. It increasingly divided the new nation after it won its independence from Britain and helped lead to the Civil War eight decades later. The cruel treatment of slaves was captured in Harriet Beecher Stowe’s classic but controversial book Uncle Tom’s Cabin, which ignited passions on both sides of the slavery debate.

Slavery still exists in parts of Africa, Asia, and South America, with some estimates putting the number of slaves in the tens of millions. Today’s slaves include (a) men first taken as prisoners of war in ethnic conflicts; (b) girls and women captured in wartime or kidnapped from their neighborhoods and used as prostitutes or sex slaves; (c) children sold by their parents to become child laborers; and (d) workers paying off debts who are abused and even tortured and too terrified to leave (Bales, 2007; Batstone, 2007).

Estate Systems

Estate systems are characterized by control of land and were common in Europe and Asia during the Middle Ages and into the 1800s. In these systems, two major estates existed: the landed gentry or nobility and the peasantry or serfs. The landed gentry owned huge expanses of land on which serfs toiled. The serfs had more freedom than slaves had but typically lived in poverty and were subject to arbitrary control by the nobility (Kerbo, 2009).

Estate systems thrived in Europe until the French Revolution in 1789 violently overturned the existing order and inspired people in other nations with its cries for freedom and equality. As time went on, European estate systems slowly gave way to class systems of stratification (discussed a little later). After the American colonies won their independence from Britain, the South had at least one characteristic of an estate system, the control of large plots of land by a relatively few wealthy individuals and their families, but it used slaves rather than serfs to work the land.

Much of Asia, especially China and Japan, also had estate systems. For centuries, China’s large population lived as peasants in abject conditions and frequently engaged in peasant uprisings. These escalated starting in the 1850s after the Chinese government raised taxes and charged peasants higher rents for the land on which they worked. After many more decades of political and economic strife, Communists took control of China in 1949 (DeFronzo, 2007).

Caste Systems:

In a caste system, people are born into unequal groups based on their parents’ status and remain in these groups for the rest of their lives. For many years, the best-known caste system was in India, where, supported by Hindu beliefs emphasizing the acceptance of one’s fate in life, several major castes dictated one’s life chances from the moment of birth, especially in rural areas (Kerbo, 2009). People born in the lower castes lived in abject poverty throughout their lives. Another caste, the harijan, or untouchables, was considered so low that technically it was not thought to be a caste at all. People in this caste were called the untouchables because they were considered unclean and were prohibited from coming near to people in the higher castes. Traditionally, caste membership in India almost totally determined an individual’s life, including what job you had and whom you married; for example, it was almost impossible to marry someone in another caste. After India won its independence from Britain in 1949, its new constitution granted equal rights to the untouchables. Modern communication and migration into cities further weakened the caste system, as members of different castes now had more contact with each other. Still, caste prejudice remains a problem in India and illustrates the continuing influence of its traditional system of social stratification.

A country that used to have a caste system is South Africa. In the days of apartheid, from 1950 to 1990, a small group of white Afrikaners ruled the country. Black people constituted more than three-quarters of the nation’s population and thus greatly outnumbered Afrikaners, but they had the worst jobs, could not vote, and lived in poor, segregated neighborhoods. Afrikaners bolstered their rule with the aid of the South African police, which used terror tactics to intimidate blacks (I. Berger, 2009).

Class Systems:

Many societies, including all industrial ones, have class systems. In this system of stratification, a person is born into a social ranking but can move up or down from it much more easily than in caste systems or slave societies. This movement in either direction is primarily the result of a person’s own effort, knowledge, and skills or lack of them. Although these qualities do not aid upward movement in caste or slave societies, they often do enable upward movement in class societies. Of the three systems of stratification discussed so far, class systems are by far the most open, meaning they have the most vertical mobility. We will look later at social class in the United States and discuss the extent of vertical mobility in American society.

Sociologist Max Weber, whose work on organizations and bureaucracies had much to say about class systems of stratification. Such systems, he wrote, are based on three dimensions of stratification: class (which we will call wealth), power, and prestige. Wealth is the total value of an individual or family, including income, stocks, bonds, real estate, and other assets; power is the ability to influence others to do your bidding, even if they do not want to; and prestige refers to the status and esteem people hold in the eyes of others.

In discussing these three dimensions, Weber disagreed somewhat with Karl Marx, who said our ranking in society depends on whether we own the means of production. Marx thus felt that the primary dimension of stratification in class systems was economic. Weber readily acknowledged the importance of this economic dimension but thought power and prestige also matter. He further said that although wealth, power, and prestige usually go hand-in-hand, they do not always overlap. For example, although the head of a major corporation has a good deal of wealth, power, and prestige, we can think of many other people who are high on one dimension but not on the other two. A professional athlete who makes millions of dollars a year has little power in the political sense that Weber meant it. An organized crime leader might also be very wealthy but have little prestige outside the criminal underworld. Conversely, a scientist or professor may enjoy much prestige but not be very wealthy.

The Functionalist Perspective on Deviance:

Functionalism claims that deviance help to create social stability by presenting explanations of non-normative and normative behaviors.

In sociology, deviance describes an action or behavior that violates social norms, including a formally enacted rule (e.g., crime, Will Thomas),[1] as well as informal violations of social norms (e.g., rejecting folkways and mores). Deviance is a behavioral disposition that is not in conformity with an institutionalized set-up or code of conduct. Although deviance may have a negative connotation, the violation of social norms is not always a negative action; positive deviation exists in some situations. Although a norm is violated, a behavior can still be classified as positive or acceptable.

Social norms differ from culture to culture. A deviant act can be committed in one society but may be normal for another society. Perception of deviance alters over time, as the notion of what is a social norm often changes.

Deviance is relative to the place where it was committed or to the time the act took place. Killing another human is generally considered wrong for example, except when governments permit it during warfare or for self-defense. There are two types of major deviant actions, mala in se and mala prohibita.

Social strain theory was developed by famed American sociologist Robert K. Merton. The theory states that social structures may pressure citizens to commit crimes. A strain may be structural, which refers to the processes at the societal level that filter down and affect how the individual perceives his or her needs. Strain may also be individual, which refers to the frictions and pains experienced by an individual as he or she looks for ways to satisfy individual needs. These types of strain can insinuate social structures within society that then pressure citizens to become criminals.

Social Strain Theory: Five types of deviance.

In his discussion of deviance, Merton proposed a typology of deviant behavior that illustrated the possible discrepancies between culturally defined goals and the institutionalized means available to achieve these goals. A typology is a classification scheme designed to facilitate understanding. In this case, Merton was proposing a typology of deviance based upon two criteria: (1) a person’s motivations or his adherence to cultural goals; (2) a person’s belief in how to attain his goals. According to Merton, there are five types of deviance based upon these criteria:

Conformity involves the acceptance of the cultural goals and means of attaining those goals.
Innovation involves the acceptance of the goals of a culture but the rejection of the traditional and/or legitimate means of attaining those goals. For example, a member of the Mafia values wealth but employs alternative means of attaining his wealth; in this example, the Mafia member’s means would be deviant.
Ritualism involves the rejection of cultural goals but the routinized acceptance of the means for achieving the goals.
Retreatism involves the rejection of both the cultural goals and the traditional means of achieving those goals.
Rebellion is a special case wherein the individual rejects both the cultural goals and traditional means of achieving them but actively attempts to replace both elements of the society with different goals and means.

What makes Merton’s typology so fascinating is that people can turn to deviance in the pursuit of widely accepted social values and goals. For instance, individuals in the U.S. who sell illegal drugs have rejected the culturally acceptable means of making money, but still, share the widely accepted cultural value in the U.S. of making money. Thus, deviance can be the result of accepting one norm but breaking another in order to pursue the first. In this sense, according social strain theory, social values actually produce deviance in two ways. First, an actor can reject social values and therefore become deviant. Additionally, an actor can accept social values but use deviant means to realize them.

Critics point to the fact that there is an ample amount of crime/delinquent behavior that is “non-utilitarian, malicious, and negativistic” (O’Grady, 2011), which highlights that not all crimes are explicable using Merton’s theory. Crimes such as vandalism, for example, can’t be explained by a need for material acquisition.

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4683 AIOU Solved Assignment 2 Spring 2019

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Thursday, August 1, 2019

4681 AIOU Solved Assignment 2 Spring 2019

AIOU Solved Assignments 2019

Question #1

Question # 2

Slavery:

Estate Systems

Caste Systems:

Class Systems:

The Functionalist Perspective on Deviance:

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