Answer :-

Constructing a research tool is the first practical step in carrying out the research process. You will need to decide how you will collect the data then you construct a research instrument for this. If you are planning to collect data specifically for your research then you have to develop a research instrument or select an already developed one.

 1 Comment Constructing a Research tool for data collection Research tool may be defined as: Anything that becomes a means of collecting information for your study is called a research tool or a research instrument.

       For example, observation forms, interview schedules, questionnaires, and interview guides are all classified as research tools. Constructing a research tool is the first practical step in carrying out the research process. You will need to decide how you will collect the data then you construct a research instrument for this. If you are planning to collect data specifically for your research then you have to develop a research instrument or select an already developed one. If you are using secondary data (information already collected for other purposes), develop a form to extract the required data. Field testing a research tool is an important part. But as a rule, field testing should not be carried out on the sample of your study but on a similar population. People who take part in research involving experiments might be asked to complete various tests to measure their cognitive abilities (e.g. word recall, attention, concentration, reasoning ability, etc.) usually verbally, on paper or by computer. The results of the different groups are then compared. Participants should not be anxious about performing well but simply do their best. The aim of these tests is not to judge people or measure so-called intelligence, but to look for links between performance and other factors. If computers are used, this has to be done in such a way that no previous knowledge of computers is necessary. So people should not be put off by this either. The study might include an intervention such as a training program, some kind of social activity, the introduction of a change in the person’s living environment (e.g. different lighting, background noise, different care routine) or different forms of 3 interaction (e.g. linked to physical contact, conversation, eye contact, interaction time etc.). Often the interaction will be followed by some kind of test (as mentioned above), sometimes before and after the intervention. In other cases, the person may be asked to complete a questionnaire (e.g. about his/her feelings, level of satisfaction or general well-being). Some studies are just based on one group (within-group design). The researchers might be interested in observing people’s reactions or behavior before and after a certain intervention (e.g. a training program). However, in most cases, there are at least two groups (a between-subjects design). One of the groups serves as a control group and is not exposed to the intervention. This is quite similar to the procedure in clinical trials whereby one group does not receive the experimental drug. This enables researchers to compare the two groups and determine the impact of the intervention. Alternatively, the two groups might differ in some important way (e.g. gender, the severity of dementia, living at home or in residential care, etc.) and it is that difference that is of interest to the researchers. Surveys Surveys involve collecting information, usually from fairly large groups of people, by means of questionnaires but other techniques such as interviews or telephoning may also, be used.
                There are different types of survey. The most straightforward type (the “one-shot survey”) is administered to a sample of people at a set point in time. Another type is the “before and after survey” which people complete before a major event or experience and then again afterward. Questionnaires Questionnaires are a good way to obtain information from a large number of people and/or people who may not have the time to attend an interview or take part in experiments. They enable people to take their time, think about it and come back to the questionnaire later. Participants can state their views or feelings privately without worrying about the possible reaction of the researcher. Unfortunately, some people may still be inclined to try to give socially acceptable answers. People should be encouraged to answer the questions as honestly as possible so as to avoid the researchers drawing false conclusions from their study. 4 Questionnaires typically contain multiple-choice questions, attitude scales, closed questions, and open-ended questions. The drawback for researchers is that they usually have a fairly low response rate and people do not always answer all the questions and/or do not answer them correctly. Questionnaires can be administered in a number of different ways (e.g. sent by post or as email attachments, posted on Internet sites handed out personally or administered to a captive audience (such as people attending conferences). Researchers may even decide to administer the questionnaire in person which has the advantage of including people who have difficulties reading and writing. In this case, the participant may feel that s/he is taking part in an interview rather than completing a questionnaire as the researcher will be noting down the responses on his/her behalf. Interviews Interviews are usually carried out in person i.e. face-to-face but can also be administered by telephone or using more advanced computer technology such as Skype. Sometimes they are held in the interviewee’s home, sometimes at a more neutral place. It is important for interviewers to decide whether they are comfortable about inviting the researcher into their home and whether they have a room or area where they can speak freely without disturbing other members of the household. The interviewer (which is not necessarily the researcher) could adopt a formal or informal approach, either letting the interviewee speak freely about a particular issue or asking specific pre-determined questions. This will have been decided in advance and depend on the approach used by the researchers. A semi-structured the approach would enable the interviewee to speak relatively freely, at the same time allowing the researcher to ensure that certain issues were covered. When conducting the interview, the researcher might have a checklist or a form to record answers. This might even take the form of a questionnaire. Taking notes can interfere with the flow of the conversation, particularly in less structured interviews. Also, it is difficult to pay attention to the non-verbal aspects of communication and to remember everything that was said and the way it was said. Consequently, it can be helpful for the researchers to have some kind of additional record of the interview 5 such as an audio or video recording. They should, of course, obtain permission before recording an interview. Case studies Case studies usually involve the detailed study of a particular case (a person or small group). Various methods of data collection and analysis are used but this typically includes observation and interviews and may involve consulting other people and personal or public records. The researchers may be interested in a particular phenomenon (e.g. coping with a diagnosis or a move into residential care) and select one or more individuals in the respective situation on whom to base their case study/studies. Case studies have a very narrow focus which results in detailed descriptive data which is unique to the case(s) studied. Nevertheless, it can be useful in clinical settings and may even challenge existing theories and practices in other domains. Participant and non-participant observation Studies which involve observing people can be divided into two main categories, namely participant observation and non-participant observation. In participant observation studies, the researcher becomes (or is already) part of the group to be observed. This involves fitting in, gaining the trust of members of the group and at the same time remaining sufficiently detached as to be able to carry out the observation. The observations made might be based on what people do, the explanations they give for what they do, the roles they have, relationships amongst them and features of the situation in which they find themselves. The researcher should be open about what s/he is doing, give the participants in the study the chance see the results and comment on them, and take their comments seriously. In non-participant observation studies, the researcher is not part of the group being studied. The researcher decides in advance precisely what kind of behaviour is relevant to the study and can be realistically and ethically observed. The observation can be carried out in a few different ways. For example, it could be continuous over a set period of time (e.g. one hour) or regularly for shorter periods of time (for 60 seconds every so often) or on a random basis. Observation does not only include 6 noting what happened or was said but also the fact that a specific behaviour did not occur at the time of observation. Observational trials Observational trials study health issues in large groups of people but in natural settings. Longitudinal approaches examine the behaviour of a group of people over a fairly lengthy period of time e.g. monitoring cognitive decline from mid to late life paying specific attention to diet and lifestyle factors. In some cases, the researchers might monitor people when they are middle-aged and then again after 15 years and so on. The aim of such studies is usually to determine whether there is a link between one factor and another (e.g. whether high alcohol consumption is correlated with dementia). The group of people involved in this kind of study is known as a cohort and they share a certain characteristic or experience within a defined period. Within the cohort, there may be subgroups (e.g. people who drink moderately, people who drink heavily, people who binge drink etc.) which allow for further comparisons to be made. In some cases, rather than following a group of people from a specific point in time onwards, the researchers take a retrospective approach, working backward as it were. They might ask participants to tell them about their past behavior, diet or lifestyle (e.g. their alcohol consumption, how much exercise they did, whether they smoked etc.) They might also ask for permission to consult the participants’ medical records (a chart review). This is not always a reliable method and may be problematic as some people may forget, exaggerate or idealize their behavior. For this reason, a prospective study is generally preferred if feasible although a retrospective pilot study preceding a prospective study may be helpful in focusing the study question and clarifying the hypothesis and feasibility of the latter (Hess, 2004). Studies using the Delphi method The Delphi method was developed in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s in the military domain. It has been considered particularly useful in helping researchers determine the range of opinions which exist on a particular subject, in investigating issues of policy or clinical relevance and in trying to come to a consensus on 7 controversial issues. The objectives can be roughly divided into those which aim to measure diversity and those which aim to reach consensus. Different ways to employ this method have been devised but they tend to share common features, namely a series of “rounds” in which the participants (known as “panelists”) generate ideas or identify salient issues, comment on a questionnaire (constructed on the basis of the results from the first round) and re-evaluate their original responses. After each round, a facilitator provides an anonymous summary of the forecasts/opinions made by the experts and of their reasons. There is no limit to the number of panelists involved but between 10 and 50 might be considered manageable. The panelists are chosen on the basis of their expertise which could take many forms (e.g. academic, professional or practical knowledge, personal experience of having a condition, being a service user etc.).

SUMMARY:
               Key indicators of the quality of a measuring instrument are the reliability and validity of the measures. The process of developing and validating an instrument is in large part focused on reducing error in the measurement process. Reliability estimates evaluate the stability of measures, internal consistency of measurement instruments, and interrater reliability of instrument scores. Validity is the extent to which the interpretations of the results of a test are warranted, which depends on the particular use the test is intended to serve. The responsiveness of the measure to change is of interest in many of the applications in health care where improvement in outcomes as a result of treatment is a primary goal of research. Several issues may affect the accuracy of data collected, such as those related to self-report and secondary data sources. Self-report of patients or subjects is required for many of the measurements conducted in health care, but self-reports of behavior are particularly subject to problems with social desirability biases. Data that were originally gathered for a different purpose are often used to answer a research question, which can affect the applicability to the study at hand. 

CONCLUSION:
               In health care and social science research, many of the variables of interest and outcomes that are important are abstract concepts known as theoretical constructs. Using tests or instruments that are valid and reliable to measure such constructs is a crucial component of research quality.

Q NO 2:What is the importance of sample in research. Discuss different sampling techniques in detail?

Answer:

     In research design, population and sampling are two important terms. A population is a group of individuals that share common connections. A sample is a subset of the population. The sample size is the number of individuals in a sample. The more representative the sample of thepopulation, the more confident the researcher can be in the quality of the results. Types of Sampling Methods Illustration of the importance of sampling: A researcher might want to study the adverse health effects associated with working in a coal mine. However, it would be impossible to study a large population of coal workers. So, the researcher would need to narrow down the population and build a sample to collect data. This sample might be a group of coal workers in one city. Sampling methods are as follows: Probability Sampling is a method wherein each member of the population has the same probability of being a part of the sample. Non-probability Sampling is a method wherein each member of the population does not have an equal chance of being selected. When the researcher desires to choose members selectively,non-probability sampling is considered. Both sampling techniques are frequently utilized. However, one works better than others depending on research needs. Qualitative and Quantitative Research In Qualitative research, non-numerical data is used to study elements in their natural settings. This helps to interpret and measure how these elements affect humans or other living beings. 

There are three main types of qualitative sampling:

 1: Purposive sampling:
             Pre-selected criteria related to research hypothesis determines the participants for research, for example, a study on cancer rates for individuals who live near a nuclear power station.

 2: Quota sampling:
                The researcher establishes participant quotas before forming a sample. Selection of participants that meet certain traits like gender, age, health, etc. 

3: Snowball sampling:
               The participants in the study refer other individuals who fit the traits required for the study, to the researcher. 9 Quantitative research is used to categorize, rank, and measure numerical data. Researchers establish general laws of behavior found in different contexts and settings. The goal is to test a theory and support or reject it.

The three main types of quantitative sampling are: 

1:Random sampling: 

                   Random sampling is when all individuals in a population have an equal chance of being selected. 

2: Stratified sampling: 

                     Stratified sampling is when the researcher defines the types of individuals in the population based on specific criteria for the study. For example, a study on smoking might need to break down its participants by age, race, or socioeconomic status.

3: Systematic sampling: 

                   Systemic sampling is choosing a sample on an orderly basis. To build the sample, look at the target population and choose every fifth, tenth, or twentieth name, based upon the needs of the sample size. The Importance of Selecting an Appropriate Sampling Method Sampling yields significant research result. However, with the differences that can be present between a population and a sample, sample errors can occur. Therefore, it is essential to use the most relevant and useful sampling method. 

Below are three of the most common sampling errors. 

1: Sampling bias occurs when the sample does not reflect the characteristics of the population. 2: Sample frame errors occur when the wrong sub-population is used to select a sample. This can be due to gender, race, or economic factors. 

3: Systematic errors occur when the results from the sample differ significantly from the results of the population. 

4: Sampling helps a lot in research. It is one of the most important factors which determines the accuracy of your research/survey result. If anything goes wrong with your sample then it will be directly reflected in the final result. There are lot of techniques which help us to gather sample depending upon the need and situation. 

This blog post tries to explain some of those techniques. 

 To start with, let’s have a look on some basic terminology

1: Population 

2: Sample 10 

3: Sampling 

4: Population is the collection of the elements which has some of the other characteristic in common. Number of elements in the population is the size of the population.  The sample is a subset of the population. The process of selecting a sample is known as sampling. A number of elements in the sample is the sample size. There are lot of sampling techniques which are grouped into two categories as

•  Probability Sampling 
•  Non- Probability Sampling

Probability Sampling:-

Stratified Sampling :-

• Non-Probability Sampling 

• Convenience Sampling 
• Purposive Sampling
•  Quota Sampling Referral /Snowball Sampling

                                    Question no # 3

Q no 3: Develop are research proposal on Analysis of reforms in Curriculum for secondary level in Pakistan mention all necessary steps properly? 

Answer:

Differentiate between research proposal and research report

 Ch proposal & its key dissertation proposal example sentences and writing george international school of ence between research methods and research perfect defense: the oral defense of a g a research dissertation g tips:

 how to write a research to create an outline for your research g a research g more suggestions... While chosen subject and identified problem are more important in a research proposal, the experimental results and methodology assume significance in the case of research ence between bibliography and reference ence between bibliography and works ence between citation and ence between electrical engineering and electronics ence between conceptual and us to improve our writing. The author should state what they are going to do, how they are going to do it, and why they want to do research report is the actual paper or project that shows the results of a person’s research. This is one procedure that needs the research to be presented in a standardized format known as research report. A research report describes the whole research study and is submitted after the competition of the whole research project. Research proposals are generally written as part of the initial requirements of writing a thesis, research paper, or dissertation. 11 writing your action research ents of a research ch proposal & its key dissertation ence between research methods and research g a research dissertation proposal example sentences and writing george international school of to create an outline for your research perfect defense: the oral defense of a to write effective project t management g more suggestions... 

      As these cannot be changed, it is prudent to harp upon the problem statement and the solutions sought. The following outline is usually, an abstract is between words, and it is used for indexing differences between reports and proposals reference page contains a list of reference materials used in tour research an academic research proposal is very similar to a project, there is no two differences between a project proposal and an academic research proposal, editing a paper with direct quotes things you should remember research component requirements and terminology. Pdf file is there a significant difference between a research proposal tries to elicit money, resources from somebody . Research proposal is an attempt to get permission and/or funding to pursue a project that is of interest to the individual making the proposal. Business research proposal and academic research i think what will bring a difference is only the field of study, but research proposal will still bring the same meaning all the a reply cancel » education » 

difference between research proposal and research difference 

– research proposal vs research ch proposal and research report are two terms that often confuse many student researchers. 

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This document contains the title, abstract, introduction, experimental details, results, discussion, conclusions, and finally references use by the ence between research proposal and research report. Research proposal is a document proposing a research project, generally in the sciences or academia, and generally constitutes a request for sponsorship of that research. When their chosen subject and topic of research is accepted, they begin their actual research work. It also typically includes information about areas that might be problematic from a research standpoint, and also a proposed list of sources.

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Budget, time limit, and qualifications of the researcher are points that matter a lot to those who grant approval. The aim of a research proposal is to justify the need for a specific research proposal and present the practical methods and ways to conduct the proposed research.

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To add this to watch /education/difference between the research proposal and research ch proposal vs research all students pursuing a course where they are required to write a thesis and get it submitted, it becomes necessary to present their research proposal. Though both the research proposal and research report contain the same outlines, there are major differences between these two documents that here are some more compilation of topics and latest discussions relate to this video, which we found thorough the internet. While a research proposal is the beginning of a research, research report can be considered its culmination. The research report is a document that is submitted at the end of a research project. 

 For example, it’s impossible to write a research proposal without reading related work and writing a literature review. Students before starting your research paper, be sure to take a look at the article below in order to distinguish the differences between paper and proposal below information will help you to get some more though about the subject just tell me the differences between research proposal and research report once you've learned the basic rules for research proposal and report writing, you can apply them to any research is there a significant difference between a research proposal is the outline of proposed research which is going to be conducted, but the research report is detailed information about already anyway if you want for more info, you would better continue reading. Research reports are usually longer than research proposals since they contain step by-step processes of the fence between research proposal and research ch proposal: research proposal describes what the researcher intends to do and why he intends to do ch report: research report describes what the researcher has done, why he has done it, and the results he has ch proposal: research proposals are written at the beginning of a research proposal before the research project actually ch report: research reports are completed after the completion of the whole research ch proposal: research proposals contain sections such as introduction/background, literature review, research questions, methodology, aims and ch report: research reports contain sections such as introduction/background, literature review, research questions, methodology, aims and objective, findings, analysis, results, conclusion, recommendations, ch proposal: research proposals are shorter in ch report: research reports are longer than research proposals. You can kind of think of it in architectural terms: sketches, blueprints, and finally building the t paper -- a concept paper is putting your idea onto paper. 

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 It is more detailed than the concept paper because it has to prove that the research is needed, and it also has to detail the methods that are going to be used in collecting data. A book similar to practical action research (focus is on reviewing if the differences between the students' conceptual difference between a research  proposal and a research projects and research proposals a guide for scientists seeking funding by paul other contexts, such as selecting a topic for a term paper or for a mentioned above, but there is a big difference between doing a pilot experiment in psychology, research reports are written in apa style. What Is a References Page? A references page is the last page of an essay or research paper that's been written in APA style. It lists all the sources you've used in your project, so readers can easily find what you've cited. The American Psychological Association (APA) created the APA style, which is a standardized method of formatting documents and citing sources. The references page format is unique to the APA style. Other formatting styles have different names and ways of listing sources on the last page of a document. For example, the Modern Language Association (MLA) calls it a 'Works Cited', and the Turabian style calls it a 'Bibliography.' Students complain about having to use these formats, but imagine if you were asked to not only write the paper, but also come up with your own format and documentation styles! The APA style actually simplifies things for all of us. In-Text Citations When you use an outside source to support or expand your ideas, it's necessary to give credit with an in-text citation. Each source you use in your paper must also appear in your references page. A source is a book, periodical, website, peerreviewed journal article, or other media that you've used for support. They are also referred to as citations or references. Creating the References Page Throughout an APA style document, and this includes the references page, a uniform font is required (12 point Arial or Times Roman), 1-inch margins (all around), and double spacing. The references page also must include hanging indents. A reference list lists only the sources you refer to in your writing. The purpose of the reference list is to allow your sources to be be found by your reader. It also gives credit to authors you have consulted for their ideas. All references cited in the text must appear in the reference list, except for personal communications (such as conversations or emails) which cannot be retrieved. A bibliography is different from a reference list as it lists all the sources used during your research and background reading, not just the ones you refer to in your writing.

“Conversations with people” isn’t very specific, so let’s go a little deeper. By definition, qualitative research is an inquiry into the way people interpret a certain social condition around them. It usually involves interviews or conversations, which produce non-numerical data. An example of qualitative research is identifying how effective a government welfare program is by talking to the people directly affected by it. 

     Qualitative research is often time intensive, primarily because it requires collecting data by interacting with people over long periods of time. Then, after collecting data, analyzing conversations and bringing out insights is also time consuming.

Qualitative research is useful in two situations: 

1: When research questions need to be sharpened: In the beginning of any study, researchers may only have a rough idea what they want to collect data on and how they can collect that data. Using qualitative research can help researchers understand their problem, zero in on their hypothesis, and create a design for further research (either qualitative or quantitative) as the study unfolds. 

2: When you need detailed description of an issue: For complex issues, simple statistics may show what is happening, but not why it’s happening. In these scenario, qualitative research is helpful for exploring social conditions and explaining them in detail. For example, quantitative data may show how many girls drop out of school, but qualitative data can help researchers understanding the barriers that stop parents from sending girls to school. 

             There are several different qualitative research methods. Which method you should use depends on what you’re trying to achieve. However, the three most commonly used qualitative research methods are in-depth interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs) and observation. What is an in-depth interview? One-to-one interviews are the most commonly used qualitative research method. They are semi-structured, which means that the questions to be asked and issues to be addressed are fluid and take shape as the interview unfolds. How long do in-depth interviews take? An in-depth interview may last 60–90 minutes and is conducted face to face. Do participants need to give their permission? Yes. Participation must be voluntary, and each person must give informed consent before they participate in an interview. When are in-depth interviews useful? In-depth interviews are ideal in situations where: 

• The research topic is complex. (For example, what factors affect whether men of  certain strata use contraceptives?)
•  The research topic is sensitive. (For example, understanding the prevalence of alcoholism among a group of people.) 
•  The study requires detailed information.

           In-depth interviews can be used at any stage of research. For example, they can be conducted in the beginning of a program to explore hypotheses and set the research plan, in the middle to benchmark the program’s progress, or at the end to understand the effectiveness of a program’s implementation.

 Who should interview participants? 

Highly skilled interviewers are important for effective in-depth interviews. It is critical that interviewers are sensitive, empathic, and able to establish a comfortable environment for interviewees.

        Interviewers should also have a deep understanding of both the topic under study and the research objectives, so they can ask questions that provide relevant and actionable insights. Poor interviewing skills, poor phrasing of questions, or inadequate knowledge of the subject’s culture or frame of reference may result in data that isn’t accurate or useful. 

         While selecting interviewers, researchers may also need to weigh personal characteristics that will make interviewees more comfortable with interviewers. For example, age, sex and profession may be important characteristics. How should researchers prepare for in-depth interviews? In-depth interviews typically start with open-ended questions, then interviewers use further questions to probe into different topics. The interviewer should have a guide prepared with a list of issues that are to be explored along with some suitable questions or probes for each issue. How should researchers collect data during in-depth interviews? The interview should be recorded. Preferably, it should also be transcribed immediately so that invisible information such as body language and expressions are not lost in the annals of time.

 Advantages of in-depth interviews 

•  Yield rich data and new insights 
•  Allow face-to-face interaction 
•  Allow in-depth conversation about the topic being studied 
•  Can capture both affective and cognitive aspects 
•  Give the interviewer the opportunity to clarify or explain the question/topic for better responses Limitations of in-depth interviews
•  Costly and time-consuming 
•   Require highly trained interviewers 
•  May obtain a massive amount of information, which makes transcription and data analysis difficult  Create exploratory, not conclusive, results. This means that their findings usually cannot be generalized for the entire population. 

       Below are the three key elements that define a qualitative research study and the applied forms each take in the investigation of a research problem. The Design 

•  Naturalistic -- refers to studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally; nonmanipulative and noncontrolling; the researcher is open to whatever emerges [i.e., there is a lack of predetermined constraints on findings].
•  Emergent -- acceptance of adapting inquiry as understanding deepens and/or situations change; the researcher avoids rigid designs that eliminate responding to opportunities to pursue new paths of discovery as they emerge. 
•  Purposeful -- cases for study [e.g., people, organizations, communities, cultures, events, critical incidences] are selected because they are “information rich” and illuminative. That is, they offer useful manifestations of the phenomenon of interest; sampling is aimed at insight about the phenomenon, not empirical generalization derived from a sample and applied to a population. 

The Collection of Data

•  Data -- observations yield a detailed, "thick description" [in-depth understanding]; interviews capture direct quotations about people’s personal perspectives and lived experiences; often derived from carefully conducted case studies and review of material culture. 
•  Personal experience and engagement -- researcher has direct contact with and gets close to the people, situation, and phenomenon under investigation; the researcher’s personal experiences and insights are an important part of the inquiry and critical to understanding the phenomenon
•  Empathic neutrality -- an empathic stance in working with study responents seeks vicarious understanding without judgment [neutrality] by showing openness, sensitivity, respect, awareness, and responsiveness; in observation, it means being fully present [mindfulness]. 
•  Dynamic systems -- there is attention to process; assumes change is ongoing, whether the focus is on an individual, an organization, a community, or an entire culture, therefore, the researcher is mindful of and attentive to system and situationational dynamics. 

The Analysis 

•  Unique case orientation -- assumes that each case is special and unique; the first level of analysis is being true to, respecting, and capturing the details of the individual cases being studied; cross-case analysis follows from and depends upon the quality of individual case studies. 
• Inductive analysis -- immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important patterns, themes, and inter-relationships; begins by exploring, then confirming findings, guided by analytical principles rather than rules. 
•  Holistic perspective -- the whole phenomenon under study is understood as a complex system that is more than the sum of its parts; the focus is on complex interdependencies and system dynamics that cannot be reduced in any meaningful way to linear, cause and effect relationships and/or a few discrete variables. 
• Context sensitive -- places findings in a social, historical, and temporal context; researcher is careful about [even dubious of] the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time and space; emphasizes careful comparative case analyses and extrapolating patterns for possible transferability and adaptation in new settings.
•  Voice, perspective, and reflexivity -- the qualitative methodologist owns and is reflective about her or his own voice and perspective; a credible voice conveys authenticity and trustworthiness; complete objectivity being impossible and pure subjectivity undermining credibility, the researcher's focus reflects a balance between understanding and depicting the world authentically in all its complexity and of being self-analytical, politically aware, and reflexive in consciousness.

     

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